Review #1

The review and quiz are separately linked. Try them first -- if you have any problems, go back and look at the lessons.

Composition

Introduction

Overview of Types of Writing

• Review

The Paragraph

The Paragraph -- Continuity in Sentences

--------------
Grammar

Introduction to Grammar

Verbs #1
Verbs #2

• Quiz #1

Gilgamesh #5

Read chapters 11-2 of Gilgamesh the Hero


That should bring you to the end.

Here are 10 Epic Conventions.   They apply more to Greek (Homeric) epics than Gilgamesh.  Do you see any of these conventions in Gilgamesh?

Try the Scatter

Definition Paragraphs

Try

Practice Test 2: Definition Paragraph (scroll down)

Sample Definition Paragraph

Wikipedia on "Definition"

I'm going to break it up to show what elements were used here:

Definition/Topic Sentence.

A definition is a passage that explains the meaning of a term (a word, phrase or other set of symbols), or a type of thing.

Elaboration -- going into detail about the parts

The term to be defined is the definiendum (plural definienda). A term may have many different senses or meanings. For each such specific sense, a definiens (plural definientia) is a cluster of words that defines it.

Method
Caution about some difficulties

A chief difficulty in managing definition is the need to use other terms that are already understood or whose definitions are easily obtainable. The use of the term in a simple example may suffice.

Solving the difficulty

By contrast, a dictionary definition has additional details, typically including an etymology showing snapshots of the earlier meanings and the parent language.

Comparisons

Like other words, the term definition has subtly different meanings in different contexts. A definition may be descriptive of the general use meaning, or stipulative of the speaker's immediate intentional meaning.

Examples

For example, in formal languages like mathematics, a 'stipulative' definition guides a specific discussion. A descriptive definition can be shown to be "right" or "wrong" by comparison to general usage, but a stipulative definition can only be disproved by showing a logical contradiction [3].

Sources Cited

(given by the numbers in the text, like the [3] above)

Go on to next section

Writing Workshop

Every 2-3 weeks we will have a writing workshop. I am not going to write out all the assignments ahead of time. Instead, I'll keep a list of things we want to focus on during the year. Together, we can figure out ways to approach these things through your fiction.

Writing #1
Writing #2
Writing #3
Writing #4
Writing #5
Writing #6
Writing #7
Writing #8
Writing #9
Writing #10
Writing #11
Writing #12

Elaboration and Expansion

Summary Paragraphs

Description

Narrative

Elements of Circumstances

Analogy Paragraphs

Read:
Analogies Lesson

Try this Quia test on analogies

Analogies are comparisons of one thing to another.  This definition is actually from a songwriting site:

An analogy is a comparison between two different things so you can point out something about how they are similar. The comparison often is done point by point.

It often is done to explain something not well known by describing something that is known so you can generalize the information from what you already understand to the new thing.

Its a way to provide insight by suggesting existing similarities suggest that there are even more points that are similar.

Metaphors and similes, which we talked about in the lesson on figurative language, are kinds of analogy.   Here are more examples.

Go on to next section

Cause and Effect Paragraph

We are getting close to the end of our survey of different types of paragraphs.

Read an explanation about the Cause and Effect Paragraph.

Also, read this section about cause and effect relationships in writing.

Then do this exercise.

Do
One more exercise

PRocess Paragraph

The purpose of a process paragraph is to show or explain how to do something, or describe how it is done. It is often used in scientific writing or in "how to" type manuals or articles. Here's an example of it used in fiction (I took a couple of sentences from the earlier paragraph so it would make a little more sense out of context):

Your business is to fix his attention on the stream. Teach him to call it "real life" and don't let him ask what he means by "real".

Remember, he is not, like you, a pure spirit. Never having been a human (Oh that abominable advantage of the Enemy's!) you don't realise how enslaved they are to the pressure of the ordinary. I once had a patient, a sound atheist, who used to read in the British Museum. One day, as he sat reading, I saw a train of thought in his mind beginning to go the wrong way. The Enemy, of course, was at his elbow in a moment. Before I knew where I was I saw my twenty years' work beginning to totter. If I had lost my head and begun to attempt a defence by argument I should have been undone. But I was not such a fool. I struck instantly at the part of the man which I had best under my control and suggested that it was just about time he had some lunch. The Enemy presumably made the counter-suggestion (you know how one can never quite overhear What He says to them?) that this was more important than lunch. At least I think that must have been His line for when I said "Quite. In fact much too important to tackle it the end of a morning", the patient brightened up considerably; and by the time I had added "Much better come back after lunch and go into it with a fresh mind", he was already half way to the door. Once he was in the street the battle was won. I showed him a newsboy shouting the midday paper, and a No. 73 bus going past, and before he reached the bottom of the steps I had got into him an unalterable conviction that, whatever odd ideas might come into a man's head when he was shut up alone with his books, a healthy dose of "real life" (by which he meant the bus and the newsboy) was enough to show him that all "that sort of thing" just couldn't be true. He knew he'd had a narrow escape and in later years was fond of talking about "that inarticulate sense for actuality which is our ultimate safeguard against the aberrations of mere logic". He is now safe in Our Father's house. --Screwtape, in The Screwtape Letters by CS Lewis

Try:

Practice Test 1: Topic Sentences for Process Paragraphs (Scroll down until you get to chapter 5)

Definition Paragraphs

Read:

an example of a definition paragraph

Summary of Methods to Develop a Definition Paragraph

• 
  
• * Explanation of meaning
• * Account of the origin of things
• * Method –
• * Examples and comparisons –
• * Citing verifiable sources –
  

Try

Practice Test 1: The Structure of a Definition Paragraph (scroll down)
(I had to take it twice, so it's not that easy. Also, there's a bug -- there is an unnecessary paragraph at the top -- scroll down in the test to get to the real questions).

Go on to next section:

Review

First Try:

Types of Writing
(this is probably review -- from K12 last year)

Now Try:

• Quia -- Types of Paragraphs
• The Four Types of Writing

(These quizzes have sort of silly examples, but might help you get the idea)

Also try:

• A quiz on paragraph structure

(this is for review -- about topic sentence, supporting details etc -- see how you do)

Types of Writing

To warm-up and review main types of writing

Try Scatter (below)

Then go on to next section

Main Types of Writing

Before we go into analysis and imitation of paragraphs let's talk a bit about the main types of writing. According to most modern manuals on writing, there are four main types of writing: expository, persuasive, narrative, and descriptive. Most high school courses expect you to know something about this, even though in actual reality most writing doesn't fall neatly into a specific category.

Four Main Types of Writing:

* Expository – Writing in which author’s purpose is to inform or explain the subject to the reader. (This is also called "explanation")
* Persuasive – Writing that states the opinion of the writer and attempts to influence the reader. (This is also called "argument")
* Narrative – Writing in which the author tells a story. The story could be fact or fiction. (some examples of non-fiction narrative are autobiography and biography)
* Descriptive – A type of .. writing that uses the five senses to paint a picture for the reader. This writing incorporates imagery and specific details. (this can be fiction or non-fiction, of course)

Most actual writings use a combination of the different elements. This is true whether the writing is fiction or non-fiction.

Go on to next section

Overview of Types of Paragraphs

The introduction for this course mentioned that Jensen's Format Writing starts with paragraphs since they can often stand on their own even if they are part of a bigger essay.

Jensen's Format Writing gives these formats for the paragraph.

1. Example
2. Classification
3. Definition
4. Process
5. Analogy
6. Cause and Effect
7. Comparison

Actually, these are all different formats for "exposition" or "explanation"-type writing -- that is, non-fiction. The ideas of example, process, analogy and so on are used in fictional writing, but you probably won't usually find a specific paragraph in a fiction story that is focused on one of those things. That's because it would unbalance the pace, right? Fiction relies on narrative and description. (That's why we aren't using Jensen's book alone -- because our focus this year is on fiction).

Still, Jensen's categories are useful in some ways. We'll go into that later on.

This site lists these patterns for paragraphs:

1. Narration Paragraph
2. Exposition Paragraph
3. Definition Paragraph
4. Classification Paragraph
5. Description Paragraph
6. Process Analysis Paragraph
7. Persuasion Paragraph

You can see it's similar to Jensen's.

Go on to next section

Example of a Paragraph

I mentioned this before, but it's important. If you look at "real" paragraphs written by real authors, it's often fairly hard to tell what "type of paragraph" a given paragraph is.

Let me take a random paragraph (this is from CS Lewis)

Each man is at every moment subjected to several different sets of law but there is only one of these which he is free to disobey. As a body, he is subjected to gravitation and cannot disobey it; if you leave him unsupported in mid-air, he has no more choice about falling than a stone has. As an organism, he is subjected to various biological laws which he cannot disobey any more than an animal can. That is, he cannot disobey those laws which he shares with other things; but the law which is peculiar to his human nature, the law he does not share with animals or vegetables or inorganic things, is the one he can disobey if he chooses.

Just from being a reader you can probably pick out the main idea of the paragraph, and you can see that the paragraph is part of a longer essay. But what form does the paragraph take?

• Different sets of laws to which humans are subject.
• Physical laws -- can't disobey
• Biological laws -- can't disobey
• Human Laws -- those he has a choice about obeying.

It's basically a classification paragraph. It shows the types of laws under which humans operate. You probably see that it is heading towards the "moral law" and the Christian idea of free will.

(Though he does not mention it specifically, you can see that he was using a format similar to the Porphyrian Tree classification you just learned about in logic. )

But CS Lewis was probably not thinking "classification paragraph" when he wrote it. That is usually not how people think when they are writing -- their attention is on what they want to say. However, if they are thinking logically their thoughts will tend to follow the rules of logic, and their writing will fall into a pattern which reflects the way people think.

That's the end of the lesson!

Finding the Right Conjunction

You probably had some trouble doing that last quiz. Try this game now:



End of the Lesson!

Introducing Subordinate Clauses

If you look here, you will see an diagrammed example of what is called a subordinate clause.

From the page on clauses

With rare exceptions, every subordinate clause functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb within another clause. This means that a subordinate clause is embedded in, and thus a part of, a main clause. The easiest way to identify clauses is to first identify the S/V/C patterns.

Here's a step by step on how to identify clauses

I should mention that if you are getting confused here, don't worry. We are covering this quickly in order to give you an overview of different parts of sentences. For now, the main thing to remember is that:

• prepositional phrases are nouns or noun phrases with a preposition in front of them (like "with a preposition" in this sentence).

• Clauses are sentence patterns -- they have a subject/verb, or subject/verb/complement pattern. There are two sentence patterns in that last sentence.

• compound sentences are two main clauses (that can each stand on their own) which are united by a joining word, a conjunction; sometimes, they are united by a semi-colon (like this sentence ; -)).

• complex sentences are sentences with a main clause and a subordinate clause. (Although I tried to come up with a complex sentence structure for this sentence, I couldn't until just now ;-)).

Try this quiz on identifying simple, compound and complex sentences. There are several really tricky ones. Do your best.

Hint:

The trickiest ones are probably the ones that look like compound sentences but are really simple sentences with compound elements, like this one:

The teacher walked (into the classroom), greeted the students, and took attendance.

You can see that there is one subject (the teacher) who did three things (walked, greeted, and took) and there are two direct objects (the students, attendance).

Go on to next section

Clauses in Sentences

Read:

Types of clauses

A "clause" is a subject, finite verb, complement pattern and all the words that chunk to it.

In the last lesson I talked about compound sentences -- sentences that are joined together with a word like "and".

You can see in the reading above that "main clauses" are those that can stand by themselves.

Here is a diagram that shows how it looks when two main clauses are joined together with a conjunction.

example from here

Here's another one that shows a similar sentence pattern to our sentence about the squirrels.

Go on to next section

Quiz

• Here is a quiz on conjunctions.
• Here's another one (finding the best conjunction for the sentence).
• Here's a quiz asking you to tell the difference between a simple and a compound sentence.

More on Compounds

Compound sentences are sentences joined by a conjunction -- conjunctions are words like for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Read the linked page.

You can tell them apart from prepositions because they link two things of similar kinds.... either nouns, verbs or whole sentences. Let's go on to the next sentence for another example.

It is a very social animal and may share a nest and live (in groups) (of eight or more adults and juveniles).

This sentence is also a compound sentence -- it actually has three sections.

• The first part is Subject/Verb/Predicate Nominative "It is a very social animal"
  
• The second part is Subject/Verb/Direct Object "(It) may share a nest"
  
• The third is Subject/Verb. "(It may) live ...."
  

The subject for all three parts is "IT". "It" is a pronoun, meaning a word that substitutes for another word. It means "northern flying squirrel" in this sentence.

Go to next section

Introduction to Compounds

The northern flying squirrel is nocturnal and is active throughout the year. It is a very social animal and may share a nest and live in groups of eight or more adults and juveniles.

Let's study these two sentences by breaking them up into their parts.

Here is a Subject/Verb/Predicate Adjective pattern.

The northern flying squirrel is nocturnal and is active (throughout the year)

I've bolded the main parts of the sentence, color-coded the adjectives or adverbs depending on what they modify, and put the prepositional phrase in brackets.

The word "and" is a conjunction. It makes this into a compound sentence. You could rewrite it into two simple sentences as follows:

The northern flying squirrel is nocturnal. The northern flying squirrel is active throughout the year.

You can see that this would be hard to read and sound sort of like a beginner book. Conjunctions allow us to join subjects, verbs, complements or sentences together into compounds.

Go on to next section

An Exercise on Prepositional Phrases

Go to this page: The Story of the Oriole

Copy the text into your Grammar Notebook and follow the directions -- particular focus on telling what noun or verb is being modified by the prepositional phrase.

I can't think of a way to have you draw arrows, so you could just bold the noun or verb that is being modified. Try color-coding it like this:

He will build his nest (DO) {on our trees} [Adv. to "will build"].

Prepositional Phrases and What They Modify

Most prepositional phrases function as adjectives, as adverbs, or both. Just as with regular adjectives and adverbs, to determine the function of a prepositional phrase you need to first find what it describes.

Read more about how prepositional phrases function.

Try this quiz -- if you get the ones wrong about infinitive, gerund and participal phrases wrong, that is fine -- we are doing those later. Basically I want you to think about whether the prepositional phrases describe (modify) the VERB or the NOUN. If it refers to the verb, it's being used as an adverb. If it refers to the noun, it's being used as an adjective.

Prepositional Phrases as Modifiers

We have been covering a lot of new ideas in grammar. It is probably a good time for a review. Work for about 15 minutes doing some or all of these quizzes, then go on to the next page.

• Adjective/Adverb Quiz
• Finding the right preposition to fit in the sentence
• Mixed Up Modifiers
• Is it an Adjective or an Adverb? (quia)
• Using the Correct Form of the Word
• Finding the Preposition

Go on to next section

Finding Adjectives and Adverbs

Let's go on to the next sentence of the passage:

They swarmed like bees that sally from some hollow cave and flit in countless throng among the spring flowers, bunched in knots and clusters; even so did the mighty multitude pour from ships and tents to the assembly, and range themselves upon the wide-watered shore, while among them ran Wildfire Rumour, messenger of Jove, urging them ever to the fore.

I'm not sure quite how to have you mark this. Why don't you put nouns in bold, verbs in italic. Then put adjectives in blue and adverbs in green. Any prepositional phrases that you see, put in parentheses.

Remember that a prepositional phrase can have an adjective within it -- describing the noun. I see at least one and there may be more.

I don't expect you to get these all perfect. It's important to think about how things work together in sentences -- it's good for understanding, for logical thinking and also for learning language patterns to be a better writer. But it is definitely not something that's always totally clearcut.

Notice Homer's rolling, cumulative sentences, by the way! Other authors have quite different patterns.

End of Lesson

Adjectives and Adverbs in a Sentence

Consider this passage from Book II of the Iliad

With this he led the way from the assembly, and the other sceptred kings rose with him in obedience to the word of Agamemnon; but the people pressed forward to hear. They swarmed like bees that sally from some hollow cave and flit in countless throng among the spring flowers, bunched in knots and clusters; even so did the mighty multitude pour from ships and tents to the assembly, and range themselves upon the wide-watered shore, while among them ran Wildfire Rumour, messenger of Jove, urging them ever to the fore. Thus they gathered in a pell-mell of mad confusion, and the earth groaned under the tramp of men as the people sought their places. Nine heralds went crying about among them to stay their tumult and bid them listen to the kings, till at last they were got into their several places and ceased their clamour. Then King Agamemnon rose, holding his sceptre.

So far we've talked about how to tell what pattern a sentence has by identifying the subject and predicate verb, then deciding whether there is a complement of some sort (if you need to review, go here)

For example:

With this he led the way from the assembly, and the other sceptred kings rose with him in obedience to the word of Agamemnon; but the people pressed forward to hear.

There are three basic parts to this sentence.

he led the way (S/V/DO)
kings rose (S/V)
people pressed (S/V)

Now I find the prepositional phrases and put them in parentheses -- remember there will be a "position" or relationship word, and a noun:

(With this) he led the way (from the assembly), and the other sceptred kings rose (with him) (in obedience)( to the word)( of Agamemnon); but the people pressed forward to hear.

"To hear" is not a prepositional phrase because "hear" is a verb -- what the people are doing. So it is an infinitive verb.

Does that make sense so far?

There are only a few words left now in the sentence.

"other sceptred" -- these describe the kings. Words that describe nouns are called adjectives.

"forward" -- this describes how the people are pressing to hear -- it modifies a verb or action. Words that modify or describe verbs are called adverbs.

There are a few words still left in the sentence:

"the"

"the" is technically an adjective since it modifies "king" or "word" or "people" -- but we call words like "the" and "a" and "an" articles. You probably remember that in Latin, articles are very seldom used in a sentence.

"but", "and"

These are called conjunctions or "joining words" because they link words together. We will talk about them in more detail in a future lesson.

For now just remember that words that tell about a noun are called adjectives and words that tell about a verb are called adverbs. Read this page.

Go on to next section

Exercise on Finding Prepositions

Try this exercise on finding prepositions. You just click on the prepositions in the passage and they will be listed in a box. Then compare your results with what the answer box shows. Remember that if "to" is followed by a verb, then it is not a prepositional phrase but the infinitive form of a verb (if you don't understand that now, it will come up in Latin before long).

Here is another quiz. It's easier, but focus on how prepositions work in a sentence.

Go on to next section

Introducing Prepositions

Prepositions indicate relation, especially location. They are usually followed by a noun (sometimes an article like "the" will be in between). Prepositional phrases are not part of the "core" of the sentence.

Take a sentence:

King Lear was aweary of the business of his kingdom, and wished only to end his days quietly near his three daughters.

The core or kernel of the sentence is actually a compound:

• King Lear was aweary (Subject/Linking Verb/Predicate Adjective -- describing something about him).... AND (a linking word called a conjunction)

• (He) wished to end his days (Subject/Verb Phrase/Direct Object)....

Now let's look at the whole sentence again -- I'll put the prepositional phrases in parentheses and I will put all the nouns into bold font:

King Lear was aweary (of the business) (of his kingdom), and wished only to end his days quietly (near his three daughters).

Prepositions begin the prepositional phrase and show relationship, so you can see that here they are: of, of, and near.

To can be a preposition, but when it is followed by a verb as it is in the sentence, it is part of the verb phrase.

Now here's the next sentence:

Two (of his daughters) were married (to the Dukes (of Albany and Cornwall)); and the Duke (of Burgundy) and the King (of France) were both suitors (for the hand)( of Cordelia), his youngest daughter.

Do you see how it works? Here the prepositions are: of, to, of, of, for, of.

To here is followed by a noun, not a verb, and shows a relationship. So it is a preposition.

The basic core of the sentence, again a compound sentence, is:

• Two... were married, and the Duke and King were ... suitors.....

The first part is simple Subject/Verb Phrase (were married) and the second part is Compound Subject/Verb/Predicate Nominative (suitors, "renaming" the Duke and King).

Go on to next section

Fill In the Blanks (Prepositions)

This exercise is useful to help you become aware of the way prepositions work in a sentence. Fill in the blanks with whatever word seems to make sense (paste over to your Grammar notebook)

Then Theseus pushed his way ___ through the thick bushes, and saw that they had not been moved ____ many a year. And searching _____ their roots he found a great flat stone, all overgrown ____ ivy, and acanthus, and moss. He tried to lift it, but he could not. And he tried till the sweat ran down his brow ____ heat, and the tears ____ his eyes ____ shame; but all was ____ no avail. And at last he came back ___ his mother, and said, 'I have found the stone, but I cannot lift it; nor do I think that any man could ____ all Troezene.'

Then she sighed, and said, 'The Gods wait long; but they are just at last. Let it be ____ another year. The day may come when you will be a stronger man than lives ____ all Troezene.'

Then she took him ___ the hand, and went ____ the temple and prayed, and came down again ____ Theseus ___ her home.

And when a full year was past she led Theseus up again ____ the temple, and bade him lift the stone; but he could not.

Then she sighed, and said the same words again, and went down, and came again the next year; but Theseus could not lift the stone then, nor the year after; and he longed to ask his mother the meaning ___ that stone, and what might lie ____ it; but her face was so sad that he had not the heart to ask.

So he said ___ himself, 'The day shall surely come when I will lift that stone, though no man ___ Troezene can.' And in order to grow strong he spent all his days ___ wrestling, and boxing, and hurling, and taming horses, and hunting the boar and the bull, and coursing goats and deer ____ the rocks; till ____ all the mountains there was no hunter so swift ___ Theseus; and he killed Phaia the wild sow of Crommyon, which wasted all the land; till all the people said, 'Surely the Gods are _____ the lad.'

End of Lesson!

Review on Sentence Parts

Look at:

• Parts of a Sentence Flashcards
• How to Find Parts of a Sentence

Try a Scatter for one or both of these set.

Also Try:

Identifying the parts of a sentence

This is a teaching quiz. Some of the parts of the sentence you probably don't know yet, but give it a try anyway.



Flashcards here

The sentence is:

Wally was eager to prove that his dog, Blue, was different from the other hunting dogs.

Sentence Patterns

Different sources give somewhat different numbers, but there are only a few basic English sentence patterns. All the infinite variety of sentences you can write in English are variations on the basic patterns.

I'll list the basic patterns and you can read here for more details.

Notes:

• Any of these patterns can have more than one subject, verb or object -- this would be called a compound subject, verb or object.
  
• Any sentence pattern can have a verb phrase -- like "has been going" or "will be playing".
• Any of these patterns can have changes in the word order, especially when language is poetic or planned for effect.

A couple of other things to be learned about later, so don't worry about them now:

• Any of these patterns can be expanded or modified by an adjective, adverb, prepositional phrase or clause.
• A phrase or clause or verb form can fill the place of a subject or object.
  

1. No Verb Complement

(Subject/Verb)

Aidan ran.

2. Direct Object Verb Complement

(Subject/Verb/Direct Object)

Aidan ran a forty.

3. Indirect and Direct Object Verb Complements

(Subject/Verb/Indirect Object/Direct Object)

Aidan threw me the ball.
Aidan threw the ball to me.

4. Predicate Nominative Verb Complement

(Subject/Verb/Predicate Nominative)

Soon, Aidan will be a teenager.

5. Predicate Adjective Verb Complement

(Subject/Verb(s)/Adjective )

Aidan is getting faster.

6. Direct Object and Objective Complement

(A rarer pattern -- there is a Subject/Verb/Direct Object but then there is a complement to the object, either an adjective or a noun, telling about the direct object).

(Subject/Verb/Direct Object/Objective Complement)

Aidan made me happy.
Liam's birth made me a mother.

Go to next section

Review and Quiz

Here are a couple of quizzes. You are not expected to get everything right on these. This is material that trips up lots of grammar students. Pay attention to the meaning of the sentence and how the parts fit together to make a statement. That helps more than anything.

Try:

Quiz on Sentence Types
Noun Quiz

Let me know how you did. We will review the areas that gave you trouble.

Identifying Complements -- Indirect Object

Example of Indirect Object

Aidan gave the book to me.
Aidan gave Paddy the cookie.

What did Aidan give?

1. The book
2. The cookie

Who did he give it to?

1. to ME
2. to Paddy

You can find the indirect object by what's left over when you've found the subject (Aidan), the verb (gave), the direct object (WHAT he gave -->book, cookie).

Go on to next section

Identifying Complements: Predicate Adjective

Go here and read

This page gives a 4-step process for identifying sentence types. We've already gone over "simple sentences" (Subject/Verb); "predicate nominatives" (Subject/Linking Verb(s)/Predicate Nominative); "direct objects" (Subject/Verb/Direct Object).

The new ones are:

• Predicate Adjective
• Indirect Object.

Example of Predicate Adjective.

The squirrels have gotten very fat.

(Squirrels do not equal "fat" so "fat" is not a predicate nominative -- it's not another name for the squirrels. A predicate nominative sentence would be:

The squirrels are called Vail, Barkley and Twitch

"Fat" says something about the squirrels though -- it describes them, so it is an adjective. Since the whole sentence is about them being fat, "fat" is what is "predicated" of the squirrels).

Go on to NEXT section

Direct Objects

Try:

• A Quiz on Direct Objects
• Another quiz

Go on to next section

Predicate Nominative and Direct Object

Do you think you understand the difference between a predicate nominative and a direct object?

Here are some sentences. Tell whether the bolded word is a direct object (DO) or predicate nominative (PN)

1. With how sad steps, O Moon, thou climb'st the sky !

2. The landscape was a forest wide and bare.

3. Here the Albanian proudly treads the ground.

5. It was a wild and strange retreat /
As e'er was trod by outlaw's feet.

6. Honor is the subject of my story.

7. I alone became their prisoner.

8. A strange group we were.

9. The mountain mist took form and limb
Of noontide hag or goblin grim.

10. The family specialties were health, good-humor, and vivacity.

11. The deep war-drum's sound announced the close of day.

12. You seem a sober ancient gentleman.

13. His house, his home, his heritage, his lands, He left without a sigh.

14. On the tenth day of June, 1703, a boy on the topmast discovered land.

15. Have you turned coward ?

Go on to next section

Direct Objects and Predicate Nominatives

In these ones try to find the subject, verb and direct object or predicate nominative. I know it is challenging! I don't expect you to get them all right, but it's good to tackle "real" sentences sometimes. These are from Mother Tongue

16. This goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory.

17. This southern tempest soon may change its quarter with the changing moon.

18. Mr. Bletson arose and paid his respects to Colonel Everard.

19. Escape seemed a desperate and impossible adventure.

20. Here I reign king.

21. She uttered a half-stifled shriek.

23. The sailors joined his prayer in silent thought.

23. We have been lamenting your absence.

24. This spark will prove a raging fire.

End of Lesson (Finally)

Review and Quiz

Here's a warm-up quiz on predicate nominatives. If you miss one, take the quiz again since it's short.

Now do the quiz:

Instructions: Find the subjects, verbs, and predicate nominatives in these sentences. Some may have compound subjects, verbs, or predicate nominatives. Some may not have a predicate nominative. Remember to try the "equals" approach. Ex: Aidan used to be (equalled) a baby.

1. My favorite musical instruments are the radio, television, and stereo.

2. Two popular trees are the linden and the honey locust.

3. The winner will be either Jeff or Will.

4. Are those people our neighbors and friends?

5. Baseball and golf are outdoor sports.

6. I will be home tomorrow.

7. Your doctor should be a well-trained individual.

8. Jenny and Emily are close friends.

9. The grand prize was a trip to Hawaii and a cruise to Alaska.

10. Mr. Hatch is a member of congress and a song writer.

Predicative Nominative #2

Instructions: Find the subjects, verbs, and predicate nominatives in these sentences. Some may have compound subjects, verbs, or predicate nominatives. Some may not have a predicate nominative.

1. Abbott and Costello were famous actors and a comedy team.

2. Radio and television have become old inventions and household necessities.

3. Many neglected children become really unhappy grownups.

4. The car has been here for a long time.

5. She was a model and became a movie star.

End of This Lesson

Predicative Nominative #2

Predicate nominatives can be compound. Also, the subjects or verbs may be compound.

Instructions: Find the subjects, verbs, and predicate nominatives in these sentences. Some may have compound subjects, verbs, or predicate nominatives.

1. One traitor and enemy to his country was Benedict Arnold.

2. Two loved Presidents were Lincoln and Washington.

3. A ruby is a beautiful stone.

4. The roads in the mountains can be long dusty trails.

5. The location to the mine was and still is a secret.

Go on to next section

Compound Predicate Nominatives

Predicate nominatives can be compound. Example: Mr. Johanson is a teacher, father, and my neighbor.

Instructions: List the subject, verb and predicate nominatives in the following sentences.

1. My favorite pets were a squirrel and a rabbit.

2. Our chief crops are corn, wheat, and hay.

3. Mr. Jones is an accountant and a big game hunter.

4. The owners of the race car include Bill, Pete, and Sam.

5. My favorite holidays are Christmas and Easter.

End of This Lesson

Predicate Nominative

We've gone through some simple S/V or intransitive sentences, including some with compound subjects or verbs. Now here is a different type of sentence. The verb links the subject with another name for the subject. This is called a "predicate nominative", meaning that the second noun is predicated of the subject.

Like:

Aidan used to be a baby.

Predicate Nominative

A predicate nominative or predicate noun completes a linking verb and renames the subject. It is a complement or completer because it completes the verb. Predicate nominatives complete only linking verbs. The linking verbs include the following: the helping verbs is, am, are, was, were, be, being, and been; the sense verbs look, taste, smell, feel, and sound; and verbs like become, seem, appear, grow, continue, stay, and turn.

The verb in a sentence having a predicate nominative can always be replaced by the word equals. Examples: Mr. Johanson is a teacher. Mr. Johanson equals a teacher. Mr. Johanson is a father. Mr. Johanson equals a father. Mr. Johanson is my neighbor. Mr. Johanson equals my neighbor.

Instructions: Find the verb, subject and predicate nominatives in these sentences.

1. Ann is a new mother.

2. The black dog in the yard was a large Doberman.

3. The tall boy has been our best basketball player.

4. My uncle became a rich computer expert.

5. Mr. Bush may be our next President.

Go on to next section

Review and Quiz

Warm-Up:

• Review Quiz -- short
• Try this one again -- see if you do any better.
  

TO DO: Quiz on compounds, interjections, and expletives.

Instructions: Find the subjects, verbs, interjections, introductory there, and conjunctions in the following sentences. Remember that subjects and verbs can be compound.

1. There were no pies, cakes or cookies on the shelves.

2. Oh, neither Jane nor Tarzan would return to civilization.

3. Barbara and her friends sat on the floor, ate goodies, and listened to records.

4. The brothers swam, fished, and rowed the boat on their vacation.

5. Wow, this lesson is hard but was fun.

Simple Sentences: Compound Subjects-Predicates

In the last lesson, compound verbs were reviewed. In this lesson you see that you can have a compound subject AND compound verb. Here is how you diagram them:

Compound predicate
The cat howled and scratched ferociously.

Compound subject and compound predicate
Juanita and Celso worked hard and then rested.

Three subjects
Juanita, Federica, and Celso are working.

Both the subject and the verb can be compound. Example: The bell and the siren rang and rang.

Instructions: Find the subject, verb and conjunctions in these sentences.

1. The boys and the girls ran and played in the field.

2. She and I stopped and stared at the sight.

3. Both the team and the coach jumped up and yelled with the last out.

4. Jeff, Jed, and Jim will be in school or will be home in bed.

5. Where have Jay and Eric been swimming and hiking?

Go on to next section

Compound Verbs

Sometimes a sentence can have two or more verbs called a compound verb. A compound verb is joined by either a co-ordinate conjunction or a correlative conjunction. Example: The bell rang and rang.

Instructions: Find the subject, verb/verbs, and conjunctions in these sentences.

1. Carl listened carefully but heard nothing.

2. The car raced down the road and hit a tree.

3. The audience stood and cheered the performance.

4. The men caught, cooked, and ate the fish.

5. Sue either has done the job or will do it now.

END OF LESSON

More Simple Sentences: Interjections

from Daily Grammar

Interjections, like the introductory there, do not fit grammatically with the rest of the sentence. They are never the subject. They come at the beginning of a sentence and may be set off with a comma. Example: Oh, I like your new car.

Instructions: Find the subject, verb and interjections in these sentences.

1. Hey, what are you doing over there?

2. Yes, I would like that very much.

3. Well, Joe did it.

4. Yippee! Our team won the game.

5. Gosh, how did you do that?

Go on to next section

More Simple Sentences

Review:

A simple sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought, and it must have a subject and a verb (predicate - some grammar books use the word predicate, but I will use verb). A verb shows action or state of being. Examples: The bell rang. The boy is here. The subject tells who or what about the verb. Examples: The bell rang. The boy is here.

When finding the subject and the verb in a sentence, always find the verb first and then say who or what followed by the verb. Example: The bell rang. Find the verb - rang. Now say who or what rang? The bell rang. Bell is the subject.

Do you remember the four types of sentences: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory?

The subject and predicate are the two parts of the sentence. Right now we are looking at simple sentences.

Warm-Up: Try this pre-test -- see how you do (it is fairly difficult so don't worry if you miss some)

Some sentences begin with an introductory there. It is never the subject. The subject will always come after the verb in such a sentence. There can also be an adverb. To be an introductory there, it must meet these rules:

• It must be the first word of a sentence (Sometimes a prepositional phrase out of its normal order can come before it.);
• It cannot mean where; It must be with a state of being verb.
• The introductory there doesn't fit grammatically with the rest of the sentence as we will find most other words do. Examples: There is some food in the refrigerator. Is is the verb. Who or what is? Food is. Food is the subject. In the refrigerator there is some food. Moving the prepositional phrase does not change the introductory there.

When you have a sentence like "there is/are" or "it is/are" the "it" or "there" are called "expletives" . Many languages don't have them, so when you translate into English you have to put it in to make the sentence sound sensible.

Instructions: Find the subject and verb in these sentences. (remember to look for what the "there" stands for)

1. There may not be time for an encore.

2. In the mail box, there was no mail.

3. There has been no letter today.

4. There weren't many men at the meeting.

5. In the snow there were many tracks.

Daily Grammar Scope and Sequence

Lessons 91-95 Lessons 96-100 Lessons 101-105 Lessons 106-110 Lessons 111-115 Lessons 116-120 Lessons 121-125 Lessons 126-130 Lessons 131-135 Lessons 136-140 Lessons 141-145 Lessons 146-150 Lessons 151-155 Lessons 156-160 Lessons 161-165 Lessons 166-170 Lessons 171-175 Lessons 176-180 Lessons 181-185 Lessons 186-190 Lessons 191-195 Lessons 196-200 Lessons 201-205 Lessons 206-210 Lessons 211-215 Lessons 216-220

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Subject/Verb Subject/Verb Predicate Nominative Direct Object S/V, PN, and DO Transitive/Intransitive Transitive/Intransitive Appositives Nouns of Address Pronouns Pronouns Noun/Pronoun Review Adjectives Review Adverbs Adverbs Review Prepositional Phrases Prepositional Phrases Review Indirect Objects Review Conjunctions Verbals Verbals - Gerunds Verbals - Noun Infinitive

Lessons 221-225 Lessons 226-230 Lessons 231-235 Lessons 236-240 Lessons 241-245 Lessons 246-250 Lessons 251-255 Lessons 256-260 Lessons 261-265 Lessons 266-270 Lessons 271-275 Lessons 276-280 Lessons 281-285 Lessons 286-290 Lessons 291-295 Lessons 296-300

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Verbals - Participles Verbals - Participles Verbals - Adverb Infinitives Verbals Verbals Compound Sentences Adjective Clauses Adjective Clauses Adverb Clauses Adverb Clauses Noun Clauses Clauses - Review Clauses - Review Sentence Variety Compound and Complex Compound and Complex

Index of Vocabulary

Vocabulary will be more than just memorizing words -- it will be about learning language patterns, so it will include memory work of other kinds as well. I'll probably fit handwriting practice in here.

Freshman Vocabulary Practice

1. Root Words
2. Vocabulary from Other Subjects
3. Handwriting
4. Memorization
5. Review Across Curriculum

Exercise on Classification

Try:
Practice Test 2: Exemplification Paragraph: Home Hazards

Also:

Can you think of a way to apply the classification or exemplar format to a part of your fiction?

It can be useful when thinking about characters in a story. You can see that any time you make a custom character for a game you are using a classification system -- hair and eye color, size, abilities etc. It's a very common format not just in writing but in various kinds of thinking and planning.

Here's an example paragraph from literature (The Peterkin Papers)

But where should they go? It was difficult to find a house that satisfied the whole family. One was too far off, and looked into a tan-pit; another was too much in the middle of the town, next door to a machine-shop. Elizabeth Eliza wanted a porch covered with vines, that should face the sunset; while Mr. Peterkin thought it would not be convenient to sit there looking towards the west in the late afternoon (which was his only leisure time), for the sun would shine in his face. The little boys wanted a house with a great many doors, so that they could go in and out often. But Mr. Peterkin did not like so much slamming, and felt there was more danger of burglars with so many doors. Agamemnon wanted an observatory, and Solomon John a shed for a workshop. If he could have carpenters' tools and a workbench he could build an observatory, if it were wanted.

What is the topic?

This is the end of this lesson.

Example of Classification

From Conversation, by Samuel Johnson

The first place among those that please, because they desire only to please, is due to the merry fellow, whose laugh is loud, and whose voice is strong; who is ready to echo every jest with obstreperous approbation, and countenance every frolick with vociferations of applause. It is not necessary to a merry fellow to have in himself any fund of jocularity, or force of conception: it is sufficient that he always appears in the highest exaltation of gladness, for the greater part of mankind are gay or serious by infection, and follow without resistance the attraction of example.

Next to the merry fellow is the good-natured man such as indolence and insensibility confer. The characteristick of a good-natured man is to bear a joke; to sit unmoved and unaffected amidst noise and turbulence, profaneness and obscenity; to hear every tale without contradiction; to endure insult without reply; and to follow the stream of folly, whatever course it shall happen to take. The good-natured man is commonly the darling of the petty wits, with whom they exercise themselves in the rudiments of raillery; for he never takes advantage of failings, nor disconcerts a puny satirist with unexpected sarcasms; but, while the glass continues to circulate, contentedly bears the expense of uninterrupted laughter, and retires rejoicing at his own importance.

The modest man is a companion of a yet lower rank, whose only power of giving pleasure is not to interrupt it. The modest man satisfies himself with peaceful silence, which all his companions are candid enough to consider as proceeding not from inability to speak, but willingness to hear.

You can see that in "real writing" the principles are applied more creatively than they are in the textbook. But if you used the standards of the classification paragraph (actually this is 3 paragraphs, of course) you would see a form like

• Topic: People you meet
• Common Element: Different kinds of sociability
• Categories: Their characteristic/ How their companions react to them.
• Ranking: Order of pleasantness

There aren't any topic or concluding sentences because this is only an excerpt of a longer essay.

Go on to next section

The Classification Paragraph

Read pages 21-22 in Jensen's Format Writing.

The course of exposition must be first to state the attributes common to whole groups of animals, and then to attempt to give their explanation. Many groups, as already noticed, present common attributes, that is to say, in some cases absolutely identical affections, and absolutely identical organs,-feet, feathers, scales, and the like-while in other groups the affections and organs are only so far identical as that they are analogous. For instance, some groups have lungs, others have no lung, but an organ analogous to a lung in its place; some have blood, others have no blood, but a fluid analogous to blood, and with the same office. To treat of the common attributes in connexion with each individual group would involve, as already suggested, useless iteration. For many groups have common attributes. So much for this topic. -- Aristotle, On the Parts of Animals

As you've seen in your Biology, a big part of science is classification. In fact, any "science" defined as "area of knowledge" seems to depend a lot on divisions and distinctions.

When we looked at the example format, we were looking at a variety of different things that fit under a category. In some ways, it is similar to inductive logic. The classification paragraph seems similar at first glance, but is in a way the opposite, in that you start with a set of categories and then show how the topic fits the categories. In some ways, this is similar to deductive logic. Or so it seems to me!

Go to next section

Gilgamesh and the Story of the Flood

If you didn't understand it well the first time, reread the story of the flood in the last tablet of the Epic of Gilgamesh

As you read, try to get a sense of what is happening, and look for the answers to these questions. We will discuss them together.

Review on Sentences

Here are some review games to do. They should be fairly easy.

Quia -- Types of Sentences
Quia -- Simple Subject and Predicate
What Type of Sentence?

Then go on to quiz.

Sentences: Inverted Order of S/V

As you saw in the first section of this lesson, sometimes the sentence order is not standard. This gives directions for how to find the basic core of the sentence when the order is inverted (switched around). Bold the subject and italicize the verb, or color-code.

Sometimes a sentence is in inverted order so the subject may come in the middle or at the end of the sentence. Examples: Out of the woods came a bear. Came is the verb. What came? Bear came so bear is the subject. With it were her cubs in a rolling pile. Were is the verb. What were? Cubs were so cubs is the subject.

Instructions: Find the subject and verb in these sentences.

1. Just around the corner was the parade.

2. In the fall the leaves cover the ground

3. In the city lived many poor people.

4. Over the fireplace were hanging the stockings for Santa.

5. From the thicket appeared the deer.

End of this Lesson

Quiz of Types of Sentences

Here are some sentences taken from an old grammar textbook. Do your best to find the subject and predicate verb or verbs.

1. Honest labor bears an honest face.

2. What's in a name?

3. A drum, a drum !
Macbeth doth come.

4. Hear the sledges with the bells, silver bells —
What a world of merriment their melody foretells!

5. Hurrah! hurrah ! Come here! It's perfectly splendid! You can see one — two — three — four — five — you can see seven different cascades!

6. The game is done ! I've won ! I've won !

7. Oh sleep ! it is a gentle thing, Beloved from pole to pole!

Types of Sentence: Interrogative

Interrogative sentences are questions. When you analyze them the important thing to remember is that the verbs are sometimes divided up. You have to find both of them (see below). Here's a page that shows how to diagram them -- you usually turn the question into a statement.

Interrogative sentences many times have the subject between the parts of the verb phrase. To find the verb and the subject, turn the question into a statement. Example: Have you seen my coat? You have seen my coat. Who or what have seen? You have seen. You is the subject.

Instructions: Find the subject and verb in these interrogative sentences.

1. Has James left for home?

2. When did the noise begin?

3. Where is Jeanne attending college?

4. Did Jeff eat any dinner?

5. Will you return on Sunday?

Go on to NEXT section.

Types of sentences

You remember that when you have a sentence, the basic core is the subject and the predicate (what is said of the subject). The core of the predicate is the verb or verbs.

Let's take something more difficult -- a section of a poem:

The night was moonless—Judah's shepherds kept
Their starlight watch—their flocks around them slept.
To heaven's blue fields their wakeful eyes were turned,
And to the fires that there eternal burned.
Those azure regions had-been peopled long,
With Fancy's children, by the sons of song—
And there, the simple shepherd, conning o'er
His humble pittance of Chaldean lore,
Saw, in the stillness of a starry nigkt,
The Swan and Eagle wing their silent flight; *

Try to find the subject of each sentence or complete section of the sentence (this is called a clause, as you might remember). Bold the subjects and italicize the verbs, or color-code. I don't expect you to get it 100%.

Now let's go on to the other types of sentences

Go on to NEXT Section

Simple Sentences: Imperatives

This section is about imperatives, or commands/requests. They are like Latin sentences in that you have a verb but no written subject. This site shows how you diagram imperatives. Once you understand this it is simple, but do remember that when the sentence says "Give me the gun" , GUN is NOT the subject -- it is the direct object.

Imperative sentences always have an understood but not stated you as the subject. Examples: Hand it in now. (You) hand it in now. Stop. (You) stop.

Instructions: Find the subject and predicate (verb) in the following sentences.

1. Give me the gun!

2. Help me please.

3. Bring me the paper.

4. Lock the car door always.

5. Run next door for some sugar.

End of this lesson.

Simple Sentences: Statements

Daily Grammar

Instructions: Find the subject and predicate in these sentences. They are statements.

1. The programs are on the piano.

2. The kittens were under the straw stack.

3. He will be here soon.

4. The weather seems cooler.

5. The money must be on the table.

Go on to NEXT section

Simple Sentences

Daily Grammar 91-95

A simple sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought, and it must have a subject and a verb (predicate - some grammar books use the word predicate..). A verb shows action or state of being.

There are four (4) kinds of sentences: declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory.

1. A declarative sentence makes a statement. Example: The assignment is due tomorrow.

2. An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request. Examples: Hand it in now. Stop.

3. An interrogative sentence asks a question. Example: Do you know the man?

4. An exclamatory sentence shows strong feeling. Declarative, imperative, or interrogative sentences can be made into exclamatory sentences by punctuating them with an exclamation point. Examples: The assignment is due tomorrow! Stop! Do you know the man!

When finding the subject and the verb in a sentence, always find the verb first and then say who or what followed by the verb. Example: The bell rang. Find the verb - rang. Now say who or what rang? The bell rang. Bell is the subject.

Instructions: Find the subject and verb in the following sentences.

1. Karen went to the mall.

2. Carl didn't help his dad.

3. Mom cooks breakfast every morning.

4. I want a new bike for Christmas.

5. Ann has had a new baby girl.

Bold the simple predicate (verb or verbs) and italicize the subject. Or you can do it by color-coding.

Go on to NEXT section.